History 111  David C. Hanson, Virginia Western Com. College Lecture 11. Medieval Europe

The era from about 500 to 1500 CE is known as the medieval period of European history (or Middle Ages).  After toppling the western Roman empire in the late fifth century, Germanic invaders established independent states throughout western Europe.  An effort by the Catholic Church and the Franks to establish a Holy Roman Empire to unify and rule Europe failed.  Still, the Christian church based in Rome was a dominant force.  To the east, the Silk Road and rise of Islam brought challenges to the church: the Crusades, and deadly epidemic called the Black Death, together killed over 30 million people.  The social, cultural, economic. and political effects on European were profound and far-reaching.

Father, Son and Holy Ghost___________________
	The Byzantine Empire       By the fourth century, Christianity had become the predominant religion of the Roman Empire.  The western empire of Rome had dissolved into Germanic factions; meanwhile the eastern empire remained unified under Byzantine rulers.  In the year 324, Roman emperor Constantine had transferred the capital from Rome to Byzantium, an ancient Greek city on the Bosporus strait leading from the Mediterranean into the Black Sea, and renamed it Constantinople (City of Constantine).        Following the same path, Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire in 380.  Christian bishops in the five principle cities of Byzantium--Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome--began to consolidate regional power in matters of civil governance as well as theology.  As Roman imperial power crumbled, the bishop of Rome emerged as the leader of Christendom, thereafter referred to as the Pope (from the Latin papa meaning father).       Strictly speaking, the first Pope was St. Peter, one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus.  Like Jesus, he was crucified by the Romans.  Jesus of Nazareth (c. 04-30 CE) was a charismatic Jewish teacher recognized by his contemporary disciples as Christ ("the anointed one"), the savior who would bring the Jews into the kingdom of God.  Origins of Christianity       A peaceful man who taught devotion to God and love for fellow human beings, Jesus attracted enormous crowds because of his reputation for divine-inspired wisdom and miraculous healing powers.  He preached sermons on self-sacrifice, service, humility, peace, and forgiveness.  He also taught that repentance of sin along with devotion to God would open the door to eternal life in heaven.  The Roman elites regarded Jesus as a threat and accused him of treason.  Emperor Pontius Pilate reluctantly ordered him to be executed by crucifixion.       As Pontius Pilate feared, the death of Jesus was not the end of his movement, but rather the beginning of Christianity.  His closest followers proclaimed that Jesus was the son of God, that he rose from his tomb three days after his death, and that he ascended to the Holy Father forty days later.        Paul and the other Twelve Apostles taught that Jesus had atoned for the sins of all humans and made possible their reconciliation with God.  By accepting Jesus as their lord and savior, the son of God, they would be granted salvation.  A body of writings recording the life and teachings of Jesus, called the New Testament, was compiled by his followers.  Together with the Hebrew scriptures, known as the Old Testament, this body of holy scripture became the Christian Bible.        For over two centuries, Christianity spread across the Mediterranean and beyond, but it lacked a central authority and consistent doctrine.  Some religious leaders taught that Jesus had literally risen from death, while others held that his resurrection was spiritual rather than physical.  The First Council of Nicaea, convened by Constantine, was held in 325 for the purpose of resolving disagreements over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Heavenly Father.  Ultimately the concept of the Holy Trinity--Father, Son, and Holy Ghost--was accepted as the central tenet of Christian theology. The Holy Roman Empire       After the fall and disappearance of the Roman empire, some European leaders dreamed of a centralized political structure.  Charlemagne (Charles the Great) became king of the Franks in 768 CE.  In a series of military campaigns he expanded the Frankish empire across much of western Europe including not only modern day France but also Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, and most of Italy north of Rome.  Charlemagne's effort to unite Europe ended with his death in 814 CE.       The Carolingian empire disintegrated, and in accordance with the Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), the Frankish lands were divided into Germany to the east, France to the west, and several small states in between.  From 962 to 1250, German rulers tried to unite Europe under what they called the Holy Roman Empire, but other European states resisted central imperial authority.  Pope John XII had crowned Otto I of Germany the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a loose confederation of Germanic states that lasted through the 17th century.  But opposition from the cities of northern Italy and later popes effectively contained and neutralized German imperialism.  The conflict between Frederick I, Frederick II, and the papacy rendered the so-called Holy Roman Empire neither holy, Roman, nor much of an empire.

The Cross and the Sword____________________
	Holy Wars       By the time the Roman empire collapsed, Christianity had become the principle source of religious, moral, and cultural authority throughout much of western Europe.  Charlemagne had provided political support to the pope, established Christian schools, and also advanced the spread of Christianity by military force.        Beginning in the eleventh century the boundaries of Christian Europe began to expand into the Mediterranean basin, starting with the "reconquest" of Spain from Muslim rule.  The popes and other leading clergy of the Roman Catholic church regarded Islam as an affront to Christianity and they encouraged military campaigns into Muslim territory.  This suited the political and economic ambitions of powerful leaders in France, Germany, and England, resulting in an era of expansive holy wars. The First Crusade       Byzantium had been fighting off Islamic forces since the sixth century, and emperor Alexius I had wanted an army of mercenary forces to defend Constantinople.  In response, Pope Urban II launched the first crusade in 1095 CE.  The pope's motives were both political and spiritual.  Launching a massive army overseas would help to combat the internal disputes between the various nobles who ruled over feudal Europe.  In addition, it would enable the pope to consolidate his power over Byzantines.        The term crusade refers to a holy war.  It derives from the Latin word crux (cross), symbolizing the execution of Jesus.  Of special importance were the holy cities of Palestine and Jerusalem, which were under the control of the Seliuk Turks.  Urban called upon Christians from France and Germany to "take up the cross" and liberate territory that had fallen into Muslim hands:   Christians, hasten to help your brothers in the east, for they are being attacked.  Arm for the rescue of Jerusalem under your captain Christ.  Wear his cross as your badge.  [Crusaders often would sew a cloth cross to their garments or paint a cross on their shields.]  If you are killed your sins will be pardoned.       A zealous and charismatic preacher named Peter the Hermit traveled throughout western Europe recruiting volunteers.  Crusaders were promised materials rewards and salvation in return for their service to God.  The response to Urban's appeal was immediate and enthusiastic.  Within a year of Urban's call to arms, Peter had organized a large army of knights and peasants who set out for Palestine with little training, discipline, supplies, or planning.  Not surprisingly, their campaign was a disaster.  They were slaughtered by the Turks.       Shortly after Peter's unsuccessful venture, a French noble named Godfrey de Bouillon and his younger brother Baldwin of Boulogne organized a more respectable military expedition to the holy land.  Starting out with over 500,000 crusaders, Godfrey left France and traveled through Italy, then Eastern Europe and on through what is now Turkey, covering hundreds of miles through scorching heat and also deep snow in the mountain passes.  The Crusaders ran out of fresh water and, according to a survivor, some were reduced to drinking their own urine, drinking animal blood or water that had been in sewage.  Disease was common especially as men were weakened by the journey and drinking dirty water.  Dysentery was common.  Heat stroke also weakened many Crusaders.  Food was bought from local people but at very expensive prices.  Ironically, men who were fighting for God were reduced to pillaging and plunder in order to get food.  Godfrey lost over a third of his army.       In 1099, down to just a fourth of his original force, Godfrey captured the walled city of Jerusalem.  The kingdom of Jerusalem was established with Godfrey as its first king.  He died in 1100 and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin.  The capture of Jerusalem was just the beginning, as the crusaders were determined to rid the entire region of Muslims and divide the conquered territory into Christian states: Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem.  The crusaders ransacked towns across Byzantium for two years.        The First Crusade was extremely popular with the people of western Europe and many left their homes to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem.  An elite military order called the Knights Templar was founded as a security force for pilgrims who flocked to the Holy Lands.  Those crusading knights who returned were seen as heroes. Sultan Saladin Strikes Back       The success of the First Crusade came largely because of the division and disarray in the ranks of their Muslim enemies.  Fearful of the crusaders' conquests, Muslim Turks, Arabs and Egyptians temporarily set aside their differences and joined forces to expel European Christians from the eastern Mediterranean.  Edessa fell to the Turks in 1144, led by Muslim leader Saladin (Salah ad-Din Yusuf).       Following the capture of Edessa by the Saladin's army in 1144, Pope Eugene III persuaded King Louis VII of France to join forces with the Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad III, in a second Crusade.  The Christian forces suffered a series of embarrassing defeats and withdrew in 1149.  Saladin attacked and recaptured Syria in 1187.  His capture of Jerusalem sparked a third Crusade.  The Third Crusade       The Christians of western Europe were stunned by the success of Sultan Saladin. The pope, Gregory VIII, ordered another crusade immediately to regain the holy city for the Christians.  It was led by England's King Richard I (Richard the Lionhearted), Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, and King Philip II Augustus of France.  These were possibly the three most important men in western Europe; such was the importance of this crusade.  It was to last from 1189 to 1192.       Frederick was drowned on his march across Europe.  He was 70 years of age and his death shocked his army and only a small part of it continued to the Middle East.  Richard, Philip and their men traveled by boat.  They stopped their journey in modern day Sicily.  In March 1191, Philip then sailed to the port of Acre which was controlled by the Muslims.  This was an important port to capture for the Christians as it would allow them to easily land their ships and it was also the nearest big port to Jerusalem.  Acre was besieged.  Philip's men were joined by Richard's.  He had captured Cyprus first before moving on to Acre.  The port could not cope against such a force and in July 1191 it fell to the Christians.  However, the siege had had its impact on Philip; he was exhausted and left for France.        Richard was left by himself.  While in control of Acre, the Christians massacred 2,000 Muslim soldiers who they had captured.  Saladin had agreed to pay a ransom for them but somehow there was a breakdown in the process of payment and Richard ordered their execution.   Richard the Lionhearted       Richard was determined to get to Jerusalem and he was prepared to take on Saladin. The march south to Jerusalem was very difficult.  The Crusaders kept as near to the coast as possible to allow ships to supply them.  It was also slightly cooler with a coastal breeze.  Regardless of this, the Christians suffered badly from the heat and lack of fresh water.  Both sides fought at the Battle of Arsur in September 1191.  Richard won but he delayed his attack on Jerusalem as he knew that his army needed to rest.  He spent the winter in Jaffa, hoping his army would regained its strength.        Richard marched on Jerusalem in June 1192.  With only 2,000 soldiers and 100 knights fit for battle, Richard could not hope to take Jerusalem, so he organized a truce with Saladin; pilgrims from the west would once again be allowed to visit Jerusalem without being troubled by the Muslims.   Neither Richard nor Saladin particularly liked the truce but both sides were worn out.        In October 1192, Richard sailed for western Europe never to return to the Holy Land.  Crusaders maintained control of some areas and embarked on several more military expeditions that ended in failure.  Unresolved distrust and bitterness between Christendom and the Islamic world gave new meaning to the ancient Muslim call for jihad, but for the most part a truce prevailed.  Six years later when Pope Innocent III called for another crusade, he was ignored by the leaders of Europe who were either in conflict with the church or fighting one another.  Further attempts at crusading were unpopular and unsupported.       By the time Saladin died in Damascus in 1193, he had liberated almost all of Palestine from the armies of Europe and from the power of the Pope.  His descendants in the Ayyubid dynasty continued to rule in Egypt and Syria for several generations.  Considered the model prince by Muslim admirers and Christian foes alike, Saladin has been memorialized in history and legend to the present day. Impact of the Crusades on Europe       The Crusades kept all Europe in a tumult for two centuries, and directly and indirectly cost Christendom several millions of lives (from 2,000,000 to 6,000,000 according to different estimates), besides incalculable expenditures in treasure and suffering.  They were, moreover, attended by all the disorder and pillaging with which war is always accompanied.        On the other hand, the Crusades had a positive impact on the progress of Western civilization: First, the effects of the crusades enhanced the role, wealth and power of the Catholic Church.  Second, the holy armies created a demand for transportation of men and supplies that encouraged ship-building and extended the market for eastern wares in Europe. The products of Damascus, Mosul, Alexandria, Cairo, and other great cities (e.g., granulated sugar, coffee, spices, dates, silk and cotton textiles, carpets) were carried across the Mediterranean to the Italian seaports and throughout Europe.  Third, the effect of the Crusades on Medieval government were profound, helping to break down the power of the feudal aristocracy and giving prominence to the kings and the people.  Fourth, Europeans and eastern Muslims experienced a large-scale exchange of ideas about religion, philosophy, biology, agriculture, astronomy, science, and technology.

Feudal Economics       The lack of a unified imperial authority opened western Europe to invasions from all directions: the Muslims from North Africa, the Vikings from Scandinavia, and Hungarian Magyars from eastern Europe.  Consequently regional and local kingdoms provided much of the initiative for military defense.  This strengthened the political power of regional states and also served to keep western Europe decentralized.       Despite the threat of invasion and potential for political instability, regional states of western Europe generally maintained good order and fostered rapid economic growth.  The institution of serfdom encouraged the development of the manor as the principal form of agricultural organization throughout western Europe in the middle ages.  A manor was a large estate of land owned by a lord.  Labor was performed by free peasants called serfs who lived on the land.  Manors often became self-sufficient communities with mills, bakeries, breweries, wineries, administrative services, and security forces.        Agricultural improvements such as iron plows, watermills, crop rotation, and plow-horse collars caused a marked improvement in agricultural production.  Surplus food supplies encouraged urbanization, manufacturing, and trade.  By the thirteenth century, Europeans traded actively throughout the Mediterranean, Baltic, and North Sea regions, and some merchants even ventured as far as China in search of commercial opportunities.

Unification of the British Isles________________
	William the Conqueror       England was the largest, most populous, and wealthiest portion of what became known as the British Isles, which also includes Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.  Originally settled by Celtic peoples, the Romans conquered and ruled Britain from the first through fifth centuries.  Then Anglo-Saxons conquered the islands and established Germanic kingdoms.  William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England in 1066 and defeated the Anglo-Saxon army of King Harold in the Battle of Hastings.        What prompted this pivotal event in European history is complicated.  King Edward of England died in 1066 with no heir.  Edward's brother-in-law and close advisor, Harold Godwinson, claimed the throne, and Harold was crowned on the day of Edward's burial.  Across the English Channel, Edward's distant cousin William, Duke of Normandy, also laid claim to the throne through blood (rather than by marriage, as in the case of Harold).  William stated that both William and Harold had designated him to be the rightful heir.  William secured the support of the Pope, who excommunicated Harold, and prepared to invade England with his Norman army.        To complicate matters further, Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, also made a convoluted claim to the throne of England.  Acting first, Hardrada invaded the northern English coast in September of 1066.  Harold's army crushed the Vikings, as Norse King Harald fell in battle, and ended that threat.  Just a few days later, the Norman army led by William landed on the English coast and marched to Hastings.  Harold rushed his army south for a second great defense of England.  The Battle of Hastings was fought on October 14.  King Harold fell and William was victorious.  William the Conqueror was crowned King of England in Westminster Abby on Christmas Day of 1066.
The Black Death__________________________
	Pathology of the Plague       In October 1347, twelve Genoese trading ships put into the harbor at Messina in Sicily.  The ships had come from the Black Sea where the Genoese had several important trading posts.  They contained a frightening and mysterious cargo: dead or dying sailors with strange black swellings about the size of an egg located on their neck and in their groins and armpits (enlarged and inflamed lymph nodes). These swellings oozed blood and pus. Victims suffered with extreme pain and were usually dead within a few days. The victims experienced coughing and heavy sweating.  Everything that issued from their body--sweat, blood, breath, urine, and excrement--smelled peculiarly foul.        The disease was bubonic plague, the most common and deadly form of the Black Death.  Next to the Crusades, a pandemic called the Black Death was the most disruptive force in Medieval Europe.  By the time the epidemic played itself out three years later, over a third of Europe's population had fallen victim to the pestilence.       The term bubonic refers to a "bubo" or enlarged lymphatic gland.  The word plague derives from an ancient Greek medical term plêgê meaning "stroke"—a reference to the speed with which the disease brings down its victims.  In cases of infection of the blood stream, boils and internal bleeding were the result, and it spread by physical contact.  In the pneumonic (respiratory) phase, the plague was spread by coughing, sneezing, and breathing.  Internal hemorrhaging often discolored the buboes, and the black or purple swellings were the source of the name "Black Death."       The plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) infects rodents and is spread by fleas.  (The deadly pathogen was named for Alexandre Yersin, a bacteriologist from the Pasteur Institute.)  If the rodent population declines, fleas seek other hosts and sometimes spread the disease to humans.  The primary culprit of the Black Death was the Asian black rat or "ship rat."  Origins of the Pandemic       Bubonic plague spread from the Yunnan region of southwestern China, where it probably had been endemic for centuries.  In the early fourteenth century, Mongol military campaigns helped spread plague from Yunnan to China's interior and it rapidly spread to other regions.  In some afflicted areas of China it was reported to have killed two-thirds of the population.  During the 1340s, Mongols, merchants, and other travelers spread the disease along the Silk Road trade routes west of China.  By 1346 it had reached the Black Sea ports of Caffa and Tana.        In 1347 Italian merchants plague-infected Black Sea ports and unwittingly spread the disease throughout the Mediterranean basin.  By 1348, following the trade routes, plague had sparked epidemics in most of western Europe.  (Not all parts of the eastern hemisphere suffered directly from plague epidemics.  The long, cold winters of Scandinavia discouraged the proliferation of plague-bearing rodents and fleas.  India and sub-Saharan African also were largely spared.)        Bubonic plague typically killed 60-70 percent of its human victims.  In some small villages and towns the disease wiped out nearly everyone.  Having no defense and no understanding of the cause of the pestilence, the men, women and children caught in its onslaught were bewildered, panicked, and finally devastated.  Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer who experienced the plague as it decimated the population of Florence in 1348, wrote:     Many ended their lives in the streets both at night and during the day; and many others who died in their houses were only known to be dead because the neighbors smelled their decaying bodies. Dead bodies filled every corner. Most of them were treated in the same manner by the survivors, who were more concerned to get rid of their rotting bodies than moved by charity towards the dead. With the aid of porters, if they could get them, they carried the bodies out of the houses and laid them at the door; where every morning quantities of the dead might be seen.... Such was the multitude of corpses brought to the churches every day and almost every hour that there was not enough consecrated ground to give them burial, especially since they wanted to bury each person in the family grave. Although the cemeteries were full they were forced to dig huge trenches, where they buried the bodies by hundreds.       In five short years an estimated 25 million people were dead as a result of the Black Death.  The results of this contagion were wide and deep.  The predominating theory found it to be a heaven-sent scourge to punish sinners and infidels.  The religious beliefs behind the plague led to many social changes.  Cities and towns implemented laws to enforce religious morality, and new churches were built in an attempt to appease God's wrath. Religious ceremonies and processions were also held to abate divine rage.  In the end, these actions and group gatherings only helped to speed the dissemination of the plague. Sociological Consequences       Looking to place blame, Jews were massacred all over Europe for suspicion of water poisoning.  The first persecution of the Jews seems to have taken place in the South of France in the spring of 1348. That September, at Chillon, on Lake Geneva, a group of Jews were accused of poisoning the wells.  They were tortured until they confessed, and their confessions were sent to neighboring towns.  In several cities all the Jews were locked inside wooden buildings and burned alive.  Sixteen thousand were murdered in Strasbourg.  In other cities, Jews were walled up inside their houses and starved to death.  That the Jews were also dying of the plague was not taken as proof that they were innocent of causing it.       The vast majority of the population at the time of the Black Death was rural peasants.  They suffered the highest mortality rates, and in so doing, became much more expensive and choosy about where they worked and how they related to lords.  With the decimation of the peasant labor force, the survivors had leverage to negotiate with landowners over wages and working conditions.  Many were able to lease land, improving their income and social standing.  In England and Wales, for example, weakened communities provided the opportunity in the aftermath of the plague for landlords to clear lands and enclose them for sheep.       Wages rose and prices fell due to fewer consumers.  Higher incomes due to the low cost of land and high cost of labor caused commercial pursuits to shift from production of staple crops and products to luxury items.  Due to this demand for luxury items, agricultural producers began to focus production on wool and the ingredients for beer, liquor and wine.  Dyes, flax, hemp, and other crops used for industrial means also predominated European fields. This change in focus of European markets away from agriculture forced the Western world to rely increasingly on the East for their large scale agricultural needs.       The breakdown of markets, transportation systems, money and production affected industry in post-plague Europe.  Numerous deaths among artisans, merchants or seamen in a certain area could bring their trade to a standstill.  Since skilled workers were hard to replace, urban craft industry temporarily declined.  Increased efficiency and higher demand soon raised the prices of urban crafts and allowed them to rise once again to their previous standards by 1350.        The century following the Black Plague was a period of great technological innovation.  Advancements such as the moveable type printing press, the compass, windmills, spinning wheels, and swifter moving ships took on an important role in European life, characterizing life after the plague as a time of labor saving saving devices and relative leisure; all of which helped speed society's recovery from the Black Death.       Opportunistic pathogens prey on vulnerable people, and the same can be said for the effect of the plague on societies.  The Black Death contributed to the demise of serfdom and the manorial system that had dominated life in Medieval Europe.  Europe had been experiencing frequent crop failures and famine, due to a cooling global climate, before the plague struck.  With the sudden loss of agricultural production caused by severe labor shortages, desperation sparked violent revolt, and hundreds of noblemen were killed in widespread peasant uprisings. Impact on the Catholic Church       It was a widely held belief that the plague was a punishment from God for wrongs committed by the people of Europe.  The people turned on each other out of fear, boarded themselves in their houses, and quarantined away on islands, but the death found them, too.  On one extreme, groups wandered the countryside flagellating themselves in self-mortification; and on the other extreme, people took the attitude of "eat, drink, and be merry" in what could have been there last hours alive.  Others questioned the very existence of God.  Contemporaries were quick to note that the Black Death killed proportionately at least as many clergy as laity.        Well before the plague struck Europe, the role of the Catholic Church in Western Europe had been changing. The papacy had grown more secular in its concerns, vying with princes for wealth and power even while attempts at reform were increasing.  The church had suffered a series of damaging losses in the late eleventh century, culminating in 1309 when the papacy moved from Rome to Avignon.        The Black Death dealt the church a further blow, for along with renewed fear and the need for new religious zeal came the opposite feeling that the church itself had failed.  The upheaval brought about by the plague helped set the stage for the new world of European Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation.  As the Black Death waned in Europe, the power of religion waned with it, leaving behind a population that was gradually turning its attention to the physical realm in which it lived, to materialism and worldliness.

Lecture 12