History 111  David C. Hanson, Virginia Western Com. College Lecture 7. East Meets West

With the decline of the Mauryan dynasty, India lacked a strong imperial state, but the Kushan empire and other regional states provided stability in northern India, facilitating long-distance trade.  In classical China the Han empire maintained order and opened access to western markets.  And the Roman empire, while it lasted, brought order to the Mediterranean basin.  As the classical empires expanded, merchants and travelers created an extensive network of trade routes, which historians call the silk roads, linking much of Eurasia and North Africa.  By 500 CE the classical empires of Persia, China, India, and the Mediterranean basin had collapsed; yet a rich legacy of political institutions, social orders, and cultural traditions remained.

Transcontinental Trade____________________
	The Silk Road       Over 6,000 years ago silk was a valued fiber for fabric.  For many centuries, silk fabric was reserved exclusively for the emperor and his wife.  Gradually silk became available for general use.  Farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk.  In addition to clothing, silk was used for musical thread, fishing line, bowstrings and paper.  Eventually it became one of the main elements of the Chinese economy.   Silk farmers raise silkworms, which take about 3-4 weeks to spin a cocoon.  Then the cocoons are carefully unwound to a length perhaps 1,000 meters long.  It takes several hundred cocoons to make a single shirt or blouse.        High-quality silk was one of the principal commodities exchanged by caravan from China to the Roman empire, linking the far ends of the Eurasian landmass [see map].  Emperor Wu Di of the Han Dynasty decided to develop trade with countries to the west, and the building of a road across Asia was his main legacy.  It took nearly sixty years of war and construction.       From the Han capital of Chang'an, the main silk road  (also called the Silk Route) went west to the Tarim Basin.  Then it split into two routes that bypassed the Taklamakan desert and came together at Kashi, located in the far western corner of China.  The road continued to Bactria, where a branch forked off to northern India, while the main route continued across to northern Iran.  There it joined with roads to ports on the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf, proceeding to Palmyra (in modern Syria), where it met roads from Arabia and ports in the Red Sea.  Continuing west, it terminated at the Mediterranean ports of Antioch (in modern Turkey) and Tyre (in modern Lebanon).  The total length was approximately 5,000 miles.  Individual merchants rarely traveled from one end to the other; instead they handled long-distance trade in stages.        A wide variety of manufactured products and agricultural commodities traveled the silk road.  Silk and spices (cloves, nutmeg, mace, ginger, cinnamon, and pepper) traveled west from Southeast Asia, China, and India to consumers in central Asia, Iran, Arabia, and the Roman empire.  Spices were extremely important in classical times.  They served as condiments and flavoring agents for food, and also as drugs, anesthetics, aphrodisiacs, perfumes, aromatics, and magical potions.  For the silk and spices they imported, western societies exchanged a variety of manufactured goods and other commodities including horses, jade, glassware, jewelry, textiles, and pottery [see illustration].       Cultural and biological exchanges were important unintended consequences of the silk roads.  Travelers carried their beliefs and values to distant lands.  Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and Islam all traveled the silk roads.  Like language and religion, contagious microbes spread along the trade routes, finding new hosts for infection.  Until immunities were acquired, deadly epidemics took a terrible toll in the second and third centuries CE.  The most destructive diseases were smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague.  For example, during the reign of Augustus, the Roman empire stood at about 60 million people.  During the second century, epidemics reduced the Roman population by over 25%.  Epidemics in China between 400 and 600 CE had a similar effect.  Demographic decline in turn brought economic, social and political changes, contributing to fall of the Roman empire and the demise of the Han dynasty in China.

Resurgence of China______________________
	The Han Dynasty       The short-lived Qin dynasty of China [see lecture 6] was followed by the long-lasting Han dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE), established by Liu Bang of the Han region.  The greatest emperor of the Han dynasty was Han Wudi (141-87 BCE).  He aggressively centralized his power through an enormous administrative bureaucracy and pursued an equally vigorous foreign policy if imperial expansion.  Han Wudi levied taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries, and he established imperial monopolies on the production of essential goods such as iron and salt.  In 124 BCE he established a university, with Confucianism as the basis for the curriculum, to prepare young men for government service.  He invaded Vietnam and Korea, subjecting them to Han rule.        The greatest challenge to the Han dynasty came from a nomadic confederation from the steppes of central Asia called the Xiongnu, whom he attacked and pacified.  High agricultural productivity supported rapid population growth and general prosperity during the early Han dynasty.  Historians estimate that the population grew from 20 million to 60 million between 220 BCE and 010 CE.  Hardening distinctions between rich and poor, and problems with land distribution and management, eventually caused economic problems and political instability.  Factionalism ultimately divided China into several regional kingdoms.        After a long period of Chinese disunity the Sui dynasty emerged (589-618 CE).  Sui emperors heavily taxed the people and demanded compulsory service in military campaigns and massive construction projects (the most important being the Grand Canal, a series of man-made waterways that extended 1,200 miles).

	The Tang Dynasty       The Tang Dynasty followed the Sui, lasting for three centuries (618-907 CE).  Tang rulers organized China into a powerful, productive, and prosperous society.  Much of the success of the Tang dynasty has been attributed to the second emperor, Tang Taizong (627-649 CE).  Taizong was ambitious and ruthless, murdering two of his brothers en route to the throne, but once in power he displayed a strong sense of duty.  He created an effective, stable government that served the people well.  He brought down the price of rice, lowered taxes, and reduced crime.  He established improvements in communication and transportation, redistributed land (the equal-field system), and implemented a merit system for the vast state bureaucracy.       The Tang Dynasty was a true renaissance for the Chinese. During this period of Chinese history a new powerful and wealthy merchant class arose that fueled a cultural revolution for the elite and the masses alike.  The world of the Chinese was stable and affluent while the doors of the outside world were open to the trade and exchange of goods and ideals.  Tang craftsmanship broke away from the past in a bold new movement forward with the experimentation of shape and form expressed in calligraphy, poetry, bronze works, jade works, ceramics, painting and thought.  Ultimately moral corruption in the later Tang dynasty led to rebellion, weakness, and collapse. The Song Dynasty       Following the demise of the Tang dynasty, warlords ruled China until the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) reimposed centralized imperial rule until the Mongol invasion.  The Song era is credited with great progress in technology and inventions, and also a revival of old Confucian traditions after the Tang age of Buddhism.  The earliest paper currency appeared in this period, and two of China's four great inventions, typography and the compass, both occurred at this time.       Tang and Song prosperity touched all of China's neighbors by encouraging extended commerce.  Trade and urbanization transformed Tang and Song China into a prosperous, cosmopolitan society.  Muslim merchants from the Abbasid empire, central Asia, and the Byzantine empire followed the silk roads in a quest for spices, silk, porcelain.  The silk route also included a network of sea lanes that sustained maritime commerce throughout much of the eastern hemisphere.  Chinese inventions such as gunpowder, the magnetic compass, paper and printing spread along the silk roads and sea lanes from China to the west.  The Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127) and Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) lasted for three centuries. The Far East       The Tang and Song dynasties laid a strong foundation for rapid economic development, partly due to technological and industrial innovation.  Tang armies extended Chinese influence both east and west, and the political organization of China was spread to Korea, Vietnam, Japan and central Asia.  The conquest of Korea led to a cooperative and mutually beneficial relationship.  In return for accepting Chinese supremacy, Koreans received a fair amount of political autonomy, cultural enrichment, and profitable trade.  Relations with Vietnam were less amiable.  The Viet people readily adopted Chinese agricultural, administrative and educational methods, but they resented Chinese domination and mounted a series of revolts against Tang authorities and eventually won their independence.        Chinese armies never invaded Japan, but cultural and political traditions spread from China.  For example, around 700 CE the Japanese ruling family established a court modeled on that of the Tang, instituted a similar style of government bureaucracy, implemented the Chinese agriculture model known as the equal-field system, and even constructed a new capital city that replicated the Tang capital at Chang'an.  Japanese emperors provided support for Confucianism and Buddhism but Japan continued to observe the indigenous religions of Shinto, which revolved around the veneration of ancestors and various deities.
	The Mongol Empire       Genghis Khan (born around 1162 CE) with the name Temujin (ironworker) united the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia in 1206 and proclaimed himself Khan (king) of the Mongol Empire.  The Mongols had perfected the arts of archery and horsemanship.  Under the leadership of Genghis Khan they rapidly proceeded to conquer a huge region of Asia.  Genghis launched invasions of the Caucasus, Xia and Jin dynasties, eventually occupying a large portion of Central Asia and China.  Before he died, Genghis Khan split his empire into khanates (kingdoms) under his sons and grandsons.  His descendants expanded the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia.        Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, established the Yuan Dynasty (1368-1644) as a continuation of the Mongol empire that lasted from 1271 to 1368.  During the Yuan Dynasty, a merchant named Marco Polo from Venice, Italy, is reported to have traveled to China.  His writings made Kublai Khan a legendary figure throughout Europe.

India: Center of the Silk Road_________________
	The Gupta Dynasty       Following the demise of the Mauryan empire [see lecture 3] in 185 BCE, for two centuries India fell under the rule of Alexandrian Greeks from Bactria, a thriving commercial center linking trade from China to the Mediterranean.  Large volumes of trade provided revenue for the Bactrian empire and coincidentally promoted cross-cultural interaction.  Around 100 CE, the Bactrians were conquered by the Kushans.  Under emperor Kanishka, the Kushans united modern-day Pakistan, Afghanistan and much of northern India.  The Kushan empire played a crucial role in the silk roads network by pacifying the region, thus making it possible for merchants to travel safely and for "warehouse cities" along the route to be secure from banditry.        In about 320 CE the Guptas arose in the Ganges region and established a powerful and dynamic kingdom.  The empire was ruled by a dynasty that began with Chandra Gupta, followed by Samudra Gupta (reigned 335-375), and Chandra Gupta II (reigned 375-415).  The Gupta empire was noteworthy for its success in maintaining stability and prosperity within a political climate of decentralized administration [see map].  Agricultural surpluses from the fertile Ganges River valley during the Mauryan and Gupta empires encouraged the emergence of towns, the growth of trade, and further development of the caste system.  The Gupta empire ended around 550 CE when the region was conquered by a nomadic people from central Asia called the White Huns.
	The Indian Ocean Basin       As in the Mediterranean, southwest Asia, and China, agricultural yields increased significantly in India, enabling many people to devote themselves to trade and manufacturing rather than the production of food.  Trade established links between various regions of the subcontinent and fostered economic development in southern India.  Trade also linked India to distant lands as merchants transformed the Indian Ocean basin into a vast zone of commercial exchange.        During the Mauryan era, merchants had continued to use land routes--through the Hindu Kush mountains to Persia, and across the silk roads of central Asia to markets in China--but they increasingly turned to the sea to transport their goods.  Seaborne trade benefited from the rhythms of the monsoon winds (which blow from the southwest in spring and summer, and from the northeast in fall and winter).  Indian ports became the primary clearinghouses of maritime trade in the region [see map].        Particularly after the establishment of the Tang and Song dynasties in China and the Abbasid dynasty in Arabia, trade in the Indian Ocean surged.  Generally, Arabs and Persians dominated the carrying trade between India and points west.  To the east, in the Bay of Bengal and China Sea, Malay and Chinese vessels were most prominent.  As the volume of trade increased, Indian artisans built a thriving industry around the production of cotton textiles.       The traditional Indian caste system withstood the social changes brought about by trade and economic development [see lecture 5].  Powerful workers' guilds were incorporated into the caste system as distinct jati.  Thus merchants specializing in particular types of commerce, such as silk or cotton trade, established themselves as subcastes, as did artisans working in various industries such as the iron or leather business. The emergence of merchant and craft guilds strengthened the caste system.  Powerful temples also fostered caste distinctions, largely because of the influence of caste-conscious Brahmins who supervised temple activities.  By the eleventh century, caste had become the principal basis of social organization throughout India.       India did not experience a return of centralized imperial rule, but in other respects development was similar to that of China.  Increased agricultural production fueled population growth and urbanization, while trade encouraged specialized industrial production an rapid economic growth.  Vigorous commerce brought prosperity to India--which contributed cotton, pepper, sugar, iron, steel, and other products to the region--but it also made India a center of cross-cultural communication and exchange of ideas.  Indian merchants helped to establish Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam throughout southeast Asia.

Brief Chronology of the Silk Road______________
	[53 BCE] The Romans first encounter silk in a campaign against the Parthians.  The new material quickly becomes very popular in Rome. The Parthians realize that there is money to be made from trading the material and send trade missions towards the east. The Romans also send their own agents out to explore the route and to try to obtain silk at a lower price. [139-129 BCE] General Zhang Qian sent by Emperor Wu Di of the Western Han Dynasty to form an alliance with the Yuezhi nomads.  He returns with horses, furs, and miscellaneous products, beginning east-west trade. [25-220 CE] Expeditions to suppress rebellions and secure trade in the Western Regions led by Ban Chao and Ban Yong. [618-907] Trade flourishes during the "Golden Age" of development during the Tang Dynasty [1271-1368] Mongolian ruler Kublai Khan expands the empire and destroys the toll-gates, reducing corruption and making passage along the route quicker and easier.
	Summary       It should be understood that the name "Silk Road" is misleading because no single route was taken, and silk was not the only commodity carried across Asia.  The total distance was about 5,000 miles but individual merchants rarely went the entire distance.  There were several different trade routes crossing Eastern and Central Asia, between Chang'an in the Far East and the Mediterranean.  Specific routes and settlements along the way changed hands, came and came and went, losing or gaining importance largely due to political and security issues.         Caravans heading towards China carried gold and other precious metals, ivory, precious stones, and glass, which was not manufactured in China until the fifth century.  In the opposite direction furs, ceramics, jade, bronze objects, lacquer and iron were carried.  Many of these goods were bartered for others along the way, and objects often changed hands several times.  There are no records of Roman traders being seen in Chang'an, nor Chinese merchants in Rome, though their goods were appreciated in both places.       Perhaps the most important "commodity" carried along the route was religion.  Buddhism came to China from India via the northern route.  Christianity and Islam also spread along the Silk Road.  By the time of the Golden Age of trade, during the Tang Dynasty, the "Sea Silk Route" was opened, from Southeast Asia around India, eventually becoming more active and profitable than the overland route.
Lecture 8:  Ancient Greece