Ancient India

History 111 David C. Hanson, Virginia Western Com. College
Lecture 5. Ancient India

The rise of Harappan civilization around 3000 BCE marked the beginning of civilization in India. Harappan merchants established trade throughout the Indus valley and into Mesopotamia, by land and sea, all the way from Egypt to the Ganges valley. As Harappan society faded around 1500 BCE, Indo-European migrants called Aryans from the northwest began to settle in South Asia. The Aryans initially clashed with indigenous Dravidians, but over time the two groups intermingled and became largely indistinguishable. In the process, they created a unique social and religious order that permanently shaped Asian society.   Two of the modern world's major East Asian religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, both originated in Ancient India around 500 BCE.

The Harappan Civilization___________________

First Indus River City
      Essentially in the same way that the Tigris and Euphrates rivers gave birth to Sumeria, and the Nile did likewise for Egypt, the Indus River provided the fresh water and fertile soil for another of the world’s early civilizations. By 3000 BCE, in what is now part of Pakistan, the Indus Valley was the site of the Harappan [p. huh-RUHP-puhn] civilization, named by historians for the city of Harappa. The Indus River brought rain and melting snow from the Himalayan mountains to a thriving civilization. As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, agricultural surpluses in India greatly increased the food supply, supported a growing population, and stimulated the establishment of numerous cities with specialized labor, commerce, religion, art, and writing.
      The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile. Harappans traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and precious stones. In addition to an irrigation system for crop production, earthworks were built to control the river's annual flooding. Crops included wheat, barley, rice, peas, melons, and sesame. This civilization was the first to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were domesticated including the elephant which was used for its ivory.
      The Harappans were an agricultural people whose economy was almost entirely dominated by horticulture. Massive granaries were built at each city, and there most certainly was an elaborate bureaucracy to distribute this wealth of food. The Indus River valley is relatively dry now, but apparently it was quite wet when the Harappans thrived there. We know this because the bricks that they built their cities with were fired bricks; since sun-dried bricks are cheaper and easier to make, we can only assume that over-abundant humidity and precipitation prevented them from taking the cheaper way out. In addition, many of the Harappan seals have pictures of animals that imply a wet and marshy environment, such as rhinoceroses, elephants, and tigers. The Harappans also had a wide variety of domesticated animals: camels, cats, dogs, goats, sheep, and buffalo.
      Because scholars have been unable to decipher the complex script, the Harappan civilization remains somewhat of a mystery. Nonetheless, archeological evidence suggests that they had a coalition of wealthy landowners and merchants.   Harappa, located on the banks of a tributary of the Indus called the Ravi River, and a second city, Mohenjo-Daro, about 300 miles downriver on the Indus, apparently were provincial capitals that served as centers of political authority [see map1]. Each city covered an area of one-half square mile and housed probably about 35,000 residents. Both cities were walled for defense and included granaries, marketplaces, temples, public buildings, extensive residential districts, and streets laid out on a carefully planned rectangular grid.
      Sometime after 1900 BCE, Harappan society entered a period of decline. Agricultural production was reduced as a consequence of climatic and ecological changes. Having deforested the Indus Valley for land cultivation and firewood, they facilitated soil erosion and desertification. Cities collapsed as the population declined and scattered. The Harappans disappeared without a trace.

The Aryans______________________________

The Noble People
      At the same time that Harappan society was dissolving, an extensive group of Indo-European peoples from Siberia and the steppes of Central Asia were beginning to establish small herding and agricultural communities throughout northern India. Known as the Aryans (“noble people”), their migration across the Hindu Kush mountains into India took place over several centuries and thus did not constitute an invasion or military conquest. The Aryans initially clashed with indigenous Dravidians, but over time the two groups intermingled and became largely indistinguishable.
      The Aryans valued cattle and horses (the latter used to pull carts and chariots). They consumed beef and dairy products, and often calculated prices in terms of the value of cattle. Early Aryans did not use writing; instead they relied on oral language, passed from one generation by scholars and priests, in the sacred language of Sanskrit. The earliest known collection of these stories, hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals were the Vedas. The Vedic Age lasted from 1500 to 500 BCE. Prior to 1000 BCE the Aryans mainly settled in the Punjab, the upper Indus River valley between Pakistan and Northern India. Gradually they extended their settlements into the area between the Himalayan foothills and the Ganges River. Each of the various Aryan tribes was led by a chieftain, called a raja (“prince”). By 750 BCE there were several small cities in the Ganges valley. As they settled into permanent communities and began to rely more on agriculture than on herding, the Aryans gradually lost the tribal political organization they had brought to India and instead evolved more formal institutions of government. Tribal chiefdoms developed into regional kingdoms ruled by maharajas (“major princes”).
      As mentioned in lecture 4, the Ancient Greeks achieved a brief period of regional domination under the leadership of Alexander the Great. After conquering Persia, Alexander launched an invasion of India in 326 BEC. Alexander was forced to withdraw, but he left Greek administrators and a lasting cultural influence. In the aftermath, a powerful Aryan ruler named Chandragupta Maurya (324-301 BCE) established an empire with its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna) in the Ganges valley [see map2]. Maurya drove out the Greeks and established control over most of India.
The Caste System
      Whereas in other lands, such as Egypt and Persia, states and empires maintained public order, in India an increasingly well-defined social order, the caste system, served as the main foundation of social stability and hierarchical power. Initially, social distinctions were based on either Aryan or native Dravidian ancestry. Aryans were lighter-skinned, and thus the Aryan term varna, which refers to the major social classes, comes from the Sanskrit word meaning “color.”
      By 1000 BCE, the Aryans had come to recognize four main varnas: the upper class of scholars and priests called Brahmins (BRAH-minz), aristocratic warriors called Kshatriyas (SHUHT-ree-uhs), a merchant class called Vaishyas (VEYESH-yuhs), and the mass of common peasants, laborers and servants called Shudras (SHOO-druhs). Near the end of the Vedic Age, a fifth category was added: the so-called Untouchables. As Vedic society became more complex and generated increasingly specialized occupations, the caste system served as the foundation for a more elaborate hierarchy of subcastes, known as jati [p. JAH-tee], which were hereditary categories largely determined by occupation. Jati rules came to dictate most aspects of social interaction including family life.

Religions of Classical India__________________

The Upanishads
      Ancient Indian religion initially revolved around ritual sacrifices offered by brahmin priests, but socioeconomic development created new philosophies that challenged traditions and appealed to many people. The inspiration came from a set of commentaries on the Vedas, called the Upanishads [p. oo-pan-NIH-shuds], published in the sixth century BCE. The Upanishads were revolutionary inasmuch as they implicitly rejected brahmin rituals and instead inspired people to reach spiritual truth and peace through meditation and an ascetic lifestyle.
Hinduism
      The religion that first emerged from seeds of the Upanishads was Hinduism. Key elements include belief in karma and reincarnation (the rebirth of the soul in a different form after death, determined by actions in the previous life according to the dharma, a law regulating human behavior). The Hindu pantheon includes three major gods--Brahman the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer—and thousands of lesser deities. Vishnu, whose human incarnation was said to be the warrior Krishna, was the most popular deity. Krishna taught that the soul does not die with the human body; that everlasting peace comes from adherence to the moral duties and social responsibilities of one's caste; and that everlasting peace (eternal salvation through unity with god) is achieved by devotion and service to himself (Krishna).
      Eventually the three major gods (Brahman, Vishnu and Shiva) came to be seen as embodiments of a single deity called Atma. Over subsequent centuries, Hinduism became the religion of the vast majority of the people of India. Hinduism is also known as Sanatana dharma. The meaning of the word Sanatana is "that which has no beginning or end and that which is there always." Dharma refers to the right way of living or proper conduct in a religious sense. With respect to spirituality, dharma might be considered the way of the higher truths.
      (Note: many modern Indian women wear a red dot, called a bindi, applied to the center of the forehead close to the eyebrows. The word bindi comes from ancient Sanskrit bindu, "a drop." Hindus believe that a red dot should be worn by married women. A black dot, commonly worn by single women, is believed to bring good fortune by keeping away evil spirits. Bindis are also worn as a decoration by women who are not Hindu.)

Buddhism
      A second world religion originating in India for a time rivaled Hinduism’s popularity: Buddhism. Siddhartha Gautama (480-400 BCE), known as the wise man of Shakya, or the Buddha ("the Enlightened One"), was born in a small Kshatriya community in the foothills of the Himalayas. The son of a raja, Siddhartha became dismayed and distressed by the intense pain of social problems and human suffering he saw. The young man left his family and traveled throughout the Ganges region in search of truth and enlightenment.
      Siddhartha's wanderings and ascetic life led him to an inspired doctrine that he spent the remainder of his life teaching of the Four Truths: (1) life is filled with suffering; (2) suffering is caused by desires; (3) renouncing desires is the only way to alleviate suffering; and (4) only adherence to a strict code of wisdom, ethics and mental discipline will enable a person to overcome desires and suffering to achieve nirvana (contentment). He explained that a person can escape from the endless search for truth and inner peace, perpetuated through the Hindu cycles of birth, death, and rebirth, by following the Nobel Eightfold Path: right understanding, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation.
      The Buddha instructed his followers to worship the place of his birth, his enlightenment, his first sermon, and his death, but not him. Today there are an estimated 300-400 million Buddhist followers (see list of major world religions).
Jainism
      A contemporary of Siddhartha named Vardhamana Mahavira (540-468 BCE) lived a remarkably similar life. Known as "the great hero," Mahavira came from a prominent kshatriya family, and like Siddhartha, he left home to seek enlightenment and salvation. According to legend, he wandered for twelve years throughout the Ganges valley, living an ascetic life. His teachings were passed on by a group of disciples who formed a monistic order to perpetuate and spread his message. They called him Jina ("the conqueror") and referred to themselves as Jains.
      Central to Jainism is the belief that everything in the universe possesses a soul (humans, animals, plants, the water, the ground, and the air). Jainism demands a strict code of ethical and ascetic behavior to avoid disturbing the millions of tiny souls encountered in life (ranging from the relatively simple practice of vegetarianism to the more extreme respect for insects and even invisible microbes and particles in the air and water). Despite the demands of the faith, observed by a small minority, Jainism was extremely influential in India. (In modern India and Africa it is estimated that ten million people practice Jainism to some degree.)


King Ashoka Maurya
      After Siddhartha's death in 480 BCE, disciples carried his message across the region. Buddhist monasteries and stupas (stone towers housing relics of Gautama Buddha) were established by his followers throughout the subcontinent. Buddhism was initially considered to be politically dangerous and was opposed by the ruling brahmins, but an enlightened ruler named Ashoka Maurya (268-232 BCE), son of emperor Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta, converted to Buddhism, and this led to his most enduring legacy.
      Ashoka began as a militaristic conqueror, like his grandfather, but then turned to peace and internal improvements. He developed an efficient and fair bureaucracy to administer governmental affairs; he established universities to promote learning; he encouraged the expansion of agriculture by building extensive irrigation systems; and he encouraged trade by building roads. Foremost, he sent Buddhist missionaries throughout India [see map3] and was responsible for countless stone pillars, stupas, and rock chambers commemorating the Buddha’s life and promoting Buddhist philosophy. After Ashoka’s death, the Mauryan Empire began to decline and dissolve.

Lecture 6

The Harappan Civilization___________________

	First Indus River City Essentially in the same way that the Tigris and Euphrates rivers gave birth to Sumeria, and the Nile did likewise for Egypt, the Indus River provided the fresh water and fertile soil for another of the world’s early civilizations. By 3000 BCE, in what is now part of Pakistan, the Indus Valley was the site of the Harappan [p. huh-RUHP-puhn] civilization, named by historians for the city of Harappa. The Indus River brought rain and melting snow from the Himalayan mountains to a thriving civilization. As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, agricultural surpluses in India greatly increased the food supply, supported a growing population, and stimulated the establishment of numerous cities with specialized labor, commerce, religion, art, and writing. The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile. Harappans traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and precious stones. In addition to an irrigation system for crop production, earthworks were built to control the river's annual flooding. Crops included wheat, barley, rice, peas, melons, and sesame. This civilization was the first to cultivate cotton for the production of cloth. Several animals were domesticated including the elephant which was used for its ivory. The Harappans were an agricultural people whose economy was almost entirely dominated by horticulture. Massive granaries were built at each city, and there most certainly was an elaborate bureaucracy to distribute this wealth of food. The Indus River valley is relatively dry now, but apparently it was quite wet when the Harappans thrived there. We know this because the bricks that they built their cities with were fired bricks; since sun-dried bricks are cheaper and easier to make, we can only assume that over-abundant humidity and precipitation prevented them from taking the cheaper way out. In addition, many of the Harappan seals have pictures of animals that imply a wet and marshy environment, such as rhinoceroses, elephants, and tigers. The Harappans also had a wide variety of domesticated animals: camels, cats, dogs, goats, sheep, and buffalo. Because scholars have been unable to decipher the complex script, the Harappan civilization remains somewhat of a mystery. Nonetheless, archeological evidence suggests that they had a coalition of wealthy landowners and merchants. Harappa, located on the banks of a tributary of the Indus called the Ravi River, and a second city, Mohenjo-Daro, about 300 miles downriver on the Indus, apparently were provincial capitals that served as centers of political authority [see map1]. Each city covered an area of one-half square mile and housed probably about 35,000 residents. Both cities were walled for defense and included granaries, marketplaces, temples, public buildings, extensive residential districts, and streets laid out on a carefully planned rectangular grid. Sometime after 1900 BCE, Harappan society entered a period of decline. Agricultural production was reduced as a consequence of climatic and ecological changes. Having deforested the Indus Valley for land cultivation and firewood, they facilitated soil erosion and desertification. Cities collapsed as the population declined and scattered. The Harappans disappeared without a trace.

The Aryans______________________________

	The Noble People At the same time that Harappan society was dissolving, an extensive group of Indo-European peoples from Siberia and the steppes of Central Asia were beginning to establish small herding and agricultural communities throughout northern India. Known as the Aryans (“noble people”), their migration across the Hindu Kush mountains into India took place over several centuries and thus did not constitute an invasion or military conquest. The Aryans initially clashed with indigenous Dravidians, but over time the two groups intermingled and became largely indistinguishable. The Aryans valued cattle and horses (the latter used to pull carts and chariots). They consumed beef and dairy products, and often calculated prices in terms of the value of cattle. Early Aryans did not use writing; instead they relied on oral language, passed from one generation by scholars and priests, in the sacred language of Sanskrit. The earliest known collection of these stories, hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals were the Vedas. The Vedic Age lasted from 1500 to 500 BCE. Prior to 1000 BCE the Aryans mainly settled in the Punjab, the upper Indus River valley between Pakistan and Northern India. Gradually they extended their settlements into the area between the Himalayan foothills and the Ganges River. Each of the various Aryan tribes was led by a chieftain, called a raja (“prince”). By 750 BCE there were several small cities in the Ganges valley. As they settled into permanent communities and began to rely more on agriculture than on herding, the Aryans gradually lost the tribal political organization they had brought to India and instead evolved more formal institutions of government. Tribal chiefdoms developed into regional kingdoms ruled by maharajas (“major princes”). As mentioned in lecture 4, the Ancient Greeks achieved a brief period of regional domination under the leadership of Alexander the Great. After conquering Persia, Alexander launched an invasion of India in 326 BEC. Alexander was forced to withdraw, but he left Greek administrators and a lasting cultural influence. In the aftermath, a powerful Aryan ruler named Chandragupta Maurya (324-301 BCE) established an empire with its capital at Pataliputra (modern Patna) in the Ganges valley [see map2]. Maurya drove out the Greeks and established control over most of India. The Caste System Whereas in other lands, such as Egypt and Persia, states and empires maintained public order, in India an increasingly well-defined social order, the caste system, served as the main foundation of social stability and hierarchical power. Initially, social distinctions were based on either Aryan or native Dravidian ancestry. Aryans were lighter-skinned, and thus the Aryan term varna, which refers to the major social classes, comes from the Sanskrit word meaning “color.” By 1000 BCE, the Aryans had come to recognize four main varnas: the upper class of scholars and priests called Brahmins (BRAH-minz), aristocratic warriors called Kshatriyas (SHUHT-ree-uhs), a merchant class called Vaishyas (VEYESH-yuhs), and the mass of common peasants, laborers and servants called Shudras (SHOO-druhs). Near the end of the Vedic Age, a fifth category was added: the so-called Untouchables. As Vedic society became more complex and generated increasingly specialized occupations, the caste system served as the foundation for a more elaborate hierarchy of subcastes, known as jati [p. JAH-tee], which were hereditary categories largely determined by occupation. Jati rules came to dictate most aspects of social interaction including family life.

Religions of Classical India__________________

	The Upanishads Ancient Indian religion initially revolved around ritual sacrifices offered by brahmin priests, but socioeconomic development created new philosophies that challenged traditions and appealed to many people. The inspiration came from a set of commentaries on the Vedas, called the Upanishads [p. oo-pan-NIH-shuds], published in the sixth century BCE. The Upanishads were revolutionary inasmuch as they implicitly rejected brahmin rituals and instead inspired people to reach spiritual truth and peace through meditation and an ascetic lifestyle. Hinduism The religion that first emerged from seeds of the Upanishads was Hinduism. Key elements include belief in karma and reincarnation (the rebirth of the soul in a different form after death, determined by actions in the previous life according to the dharma, a law regulating human behavior). The Hindu pantheon includes three major gods--Brahman the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer—and thousands of lesser deities. Vishnu, whose human incarnation was said to be the warrior Krishna, was the most popular deity. Krishna taught that the soul does not die with the human body; that everlasting peace comes from adherence to the moral duties and social responsibilities of one's caste; and that everlasting peace (eternal salvation through unity with god) is achieved by devotion and service to himself (Krishna). Eventually the three major gods (Brahman, Vishnu and Shiva) came to be seen as embodiments of a single deity called Atma. Over subsequent centuries, Hinduism became the religion of the vast majority of the people of India. Hinduism is also known as Sanatana dharma. The meaning of the word Sanatana is "that which has no beginning or end and that which is there always." Dharma refers to the right way of living or proper conduct in a religious sense. With respect to spirituality, dharma might be considered the way of the higher truths. (Note: many modern Indian women wear a red dot, called a bindi, applied to the center of the forehead close to the eyebrows. The word bindi comes from ancient Sanskrit bindu, "a drop." Hindus believe that a red dot should be worn by married women. A black dot, commonly worn by single women, is believed to bring good fortune by keeping away evil spirits. Bindis are also worn as a decoration by women who are not Hindu.) Buddhism A second world religion originating in India for a time rivaled Hinduism’s popularity: Buddhism. Siddhartha Gautama (480-400 BCE), known as the wise man of Shakya, or the Buddha ("the Enlightened One"), was born in a small Kshatriya community in the foothills of the Himalayas. The son of a raja, Siddhartha became dismayed and distressed by the intense pain of social problems and human suffering he saw. The young man left his family and traveled throughout the Ganges region in search of truth and enlightenment. Siddhartha's wanderings and ascetic life led him to an inspired doctrine that he spent the remainder of his life teaching of the Four Truths: (1) life is filled with suffering; (2) suffering is caused by desires; (3) renouncing desires is the only way to alleviate suffering; and (4) only adherence to a strict code of wisdom, ethics and mental discipline will enable a person to overcome desires and suffering to achieve nirvana (contentment). He explained that a person can escape from the endless search for truth and inner peace, perpetuated through the Hindu cycles of birth, death, and rebirth, by following the Nobel Eightfold Path: right understanding, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation. The Buddha instructed his followers to worship the place of his birth, his enlightenment, his first sermon, and his death, but not him. Today there are an estimated 300-400 million Buddhist followers (see list of major world religions). Jainism A contemporary of Siddhartha named Vardhamana Mahavira (540-468 BCE) lived a remarkably similar life. Known as "the great hero," Mahavira came from a prominent kshatriya family, and like Siddhartha, he left home to seek enlightenment and salvation. According to legend, he wandered for twelve years throughout the Ganges valley, living an ascetic life. His teachings were passed on by a group of disciples who formed a monistic order to perpetuate and spread his message. They called him Jina ("the conqueror") and referred to themselves as Jains. Central to Jainism is the belief that everything in the universe possesses a soul (humans, animals, plants, the water, the ground, and the air). Jainism demands a strict code of ethical and ascetic behavior to avoid disturbing the millions of tiny souls encountered in life (ranging from the relatively simple practice of vegetarianism to the more extreme respect for insects and even invisible microbes and particles in the air and water). Despite the demands of the faith, observed by a small minority, Jainism was extremely influential in India. (In modern India and Africa it is estimated that ten million people practice Jainism to some degree.)
	King Ashoka Maurya After Siddhartha's death in 480 BCE, disciples carried his message across the region. Buddhist monasteries and stupas (stone towers housing relics of Gautama Buddha) were established by his followers throughout the subcontinent. Buddhism was initially considered to be politically dangerous and was opposed by the ruling brahmins, but an enlightened ruler named Ashoka Maurya (268-232 BCE), son of emperor Bindusara and grandson of Chandragupta, converted to Buddhism, and this led to his most enduring legacy. Ashoka began as a militaristic conqueror, like his grandfather, but then turned to peace and internal improvements. He developed an efficient and fair bureaucracy to administer governmental affairs; he established universities to promote learning; he encouraged the expansion of agriculture by building extensive irrigation systems; and he encouraged trade by building roads. Foremost, he sent Buddhist missionaries throughout India [see map3] and was responsible for countless stone pillars, stupas, and rock chambers commemorating the Buddha’s life and promoting Buddhist philosophy. After Ashoka’s death, the Mauryan Empire began to decline and dissolve.